Great questions, Deborah. I wish I had equally great answers! The challenge is that to answer these questions with any degree of conviction we need studies involving large numbers of people, ideally from a range of ethnic and geographical backgrounds, followed for many years. For example, a hypothetical study suggesting that goat milk was more beneficial in a Japanese study of 150 people would be interesting, but we'd have no idea if it applied to a wider Japanese population, let alone the average American.
Although there are some nutritional differences in milk from different animals, there aren't long-term studies. Goat and sheep milk tends to be higher in saturated fat. The best evidence for long-term health benefits comes from lower fat cow's milk, unsweetened fermented dairy (think yogurt and kefir), and maybe hard cheeses (though they can come with a lot of saturated fat and salt, so are best eaten in moderation).
Free range eggs and 'omega-3' eggs, do come with higher levels of omega-3, and most people don't get enough omega-3 - perhaps more importantly, most people on a Western diet have an omega-6 to omega-3 ratio of ~18 to 1, when 2 or 3 to 1 is what the body is 'designed' for. However, the amount of omega-3 in these eggs is pretty small. You'd be better off focusing on oily fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines, sea bass, etc.) as the source of omega-3, and maybe adding a tablespoon of ground flaxseeds to your breakfast.
Eggs are contentious. My reading of the scientific literature has made me fairly conservative. I rarely eat more than two eggs a week. How you cook them and what you eat them with is likely far more important than the 'type' of egg. In the West, we all too often fry them and eat them with processed meats. In this context, eggs are quite strongly associated with harmful health effects in most studies. In contrast, in Asian countries, eggs are usually poached in broth and eaten with vegetables. Here, studies usually show not adverse health effects. As always, context matters.
In terms of protecting long term health, you'll get the biggest results from the big levers - eat lots of fruit, vegetables and whole grains, also nuts daily and oily fish a couple of times a week, while cutting back on red and processed meats, foods cooked at high temperature (think fried, roasted, grilled, etc.), ultra-processed food and sugary drinks and desserts. Add to that getting 6.5-7.5 hours of actual sleep, 6000+ steps a day and resistance exercise a couple of times a week. With all of those are running smoothly, you'll have locked in at least 80% of the health benefits without getting into the minutiae of egg choices or cows vs goats milk.
Although milk is pasteurised, that's a good thing and it's not the same as ultra-processed. In the same way, cheese is processed through fermentation, again a good thing.
The sour cream on your sour cream and chives flavoured snack - that's a whole different, ultra-processed ball game!
Curious where you got the data that eggs and red meat are a net negative? I'd suggest checking these two articles out for an unbiased glance at the possible health benefits of them both. Especially egg yolk.
However, there are many other meta-analyses and systematic reviews that come to the same conclusions. For example:
, W., Zhang, Y., Pan, L., Wang, S., Xie, K., Deng, S., Wang, R., Guo, C., Qin, P., Wu, X., Wu, Y., Zhao, Y., Feng, Y., & Hu, F. (2022). Association of Egg Consumption with Risk of All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.. The Journal of nutrition, 152 10, 2227-2237 . https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxac105.
CONCLUSIONS: Egg consumption was linearly associated with a modestly increased risk of all-cause mortality and, in older participants, Americans, and studies with longer follow-up or adjustments for hyperlipidemia, CVD mortality. These findings suggest that it may be prudent to avoid high egg consumption.
and
Wang, X., Lin, X., Ying, O., Liu, J., Zhao, G., Pan, A., & Hu, F. (2015). Red and processed meat consumption and mortality: dose–response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Public Health Nutrition, 19, 893 - 905. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015002062.
CONCLUSIONS: The present meta-analysis indicates that higher consumption of total red meat and processed meat is associated with an increased risk of total, cardiovascular and cancer mortality.
I’m not familiar with Chris Kresser, but when it comes to ‘unbiased opinions,’ you need to be cautious when your source is promoting supplements. I prefer to take my lead from extensive reading of academic journals.
This 2021 study of more than half a million Americans found that those eating the most eggs (5 eggs/week on average) had a 17% higher rate of death from any cause than those eating the least.
Interestingly, that link disappeared when the researchers corrected for blood cholesterol levels, suggesting that cholesterol is likely to be the key factor driving the higher risk. This is also supported by the fact that those eating only egg whites had a 7% lower risk of dying prematurely - the cholesterol is in the yolk.
If you want to eat half an egg, the evidence suggests you should eat the white and leave the yolk.
No, I’m not “choosing studies to fit my ideology.” I’m selecting high-quality, long-term studies that directly answer the question: Do people who consume more dietary cholesterol - mainly from eggs - have higher rates of heart disease and earlier death?
And for the record, I like eggs. If I could make the evidence support eating them freely, I’d happily do so. But when you take an honest look at the research, that’s not what it shows.
This systematic review looked at dietary cholesterol and cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the authors concluded: “Reviewed studies were heterogeneous and lacked the methodological rigor to draw any conclusions regarding the effects of dietary cholesterol on CVD risk... the effect... remains unclear.”
“A positive relation between dietary cholesterol and LDL cholesterol concentrations has been documented... Consistent with these findings, the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee report noted that current intakes should not be increased... Adhering to a dietary pattern consistent with the guidance in this document will result in relatively low dietary cholesterol intakes.”
This reviews mostly short-term feeding trials (weeks to months in length) looking at blood lipid changes, not disease or mortality. Useful for understanding mechanisms, but not relevant to long-term health outcomes, which is what this discussion is about.
This sub-analysis involved 609 people on low-carb, calorie-restricted diets. They were losing weight, which in itself improves lipid profiles. Even the authors caution against generalising these results.
This wasn’t a study. It was an anecdote. One person, no control group, no peer review, and only short-term markers - not long-term health risks.
Here’s what serious, long-term cohort studies show:
These studies tracked thousands of people for decades, adjusting for lifestyle and health variables, and looked at actual clinical outcomes - heart attacks, strokes, and deaths.
Gradually increasing or persistently high cholesterol intake linked to:
+14% risk of hypertension
+219% increase in all-cause mortality (gradual increase group)
+226% increase in those with persistently high intake
Bottom line: Your evidence is short-term, often based on blood markers rather than outcomes, and doesn’t prove what you claim.
The best available science - large, long-running cohort studies, published in leading journals - shows that high dietary cholesterol is associated with earlier death and more cardiovascular disease.
This isn’t a fringe view. It’s supported by the AHA, WHO, and the most respected epidemiologists in the field.
So while a few eggs a week may be fine as part of an otherwise healthy diet, pretending they’re harmless in unlimited amounts - especially in people with diabetes or high LDL - is misleading and potentially dangerous.
I can't help but think that egg white alone would taste pretty underwhelming, too!
Nutrition is endlessly complex and frustrating, isn't it? The thing is, we don't need to be perfect. It's important to understand what the science tells us, but then we have to cobble together a diet that's healthy, but that also fits with our tastes and lifestyle.
I know I should cut back on sugar, maybe I should try fasting, too, but you know what.. I don't want to!
You can eat your egg whites without a worry, Theresa!
Most studies looking at the health effects of eggs just look at whole eggs. However, when just egg whites are considered, there’s actually a modest fall in the risk of premature death for those who eat the most egg whites.
So, it looks like the risk comes only from the yolks, presumably mostly down to the cholesterol.
Keep enjoying those egg whites! (The veggies make them even healthier).
With regard to red meat and eggs, I’m seeing more information about how animal diet affects the end product. Is grass fed beef healthier to eat? Same for free range chickens?
Also, many grain crops in the US may be sprayed with glyphosate (Round Up) to speed desiccation of plants prior to harvest. That raises health concerns.
We raise our chickens for eggs, hydroponically grow most of our vegetables indoors, consume mostly grass fed beef without grain finishing, without added hormones and without antibiotics. Any vegetables from stores are organic.
How can we improve? I’m leery about studies that don’t address the above modifiers and would certainly be interested in learning more.
Mick and Ben, I appreciate your above discussion, but where can additional research be found, if it exists?
Great information, and once again, thank you for the response. My beef reactions were likely a result of Alpha-Gal syndrome (AGS). I seem to be over coming that, but still very cautious about grain fed vs grass fed beef as I only tolerate the latter.
Given that one of the few things every single one of us does every day is to eat and drink, it’s frustrating how much we still don’t fully understand about nutrition.
The concern about grain vs grass fed beef is largely down to the omega-6 vs omega-3 balance. Grain fed animals have more omega-6. We evolved eating a diet balanced with omega-6 and omega-3. These days, the ‘average’ American gets 18 times more omega-6 than omega-3, and there are strong links between that and higher levels of many diseases as well as deaths from any cause.
On the surface, eating grass fed beef is better because we’d get less omega-6 from this beef than from grain-fed cattle. However, little of our omega-6 comes from meat. It comes from ultra-processed foods, savoury snacks, mayonnaise, creamy store-bought sources, retail cakes and cookies, etc. So I’m not sure how much real world difference it would make. That said, I’m not disputing that grass fed beef is better - it tastes better and it means a better life for the cows.
I think a bigger concern is the association between red and processed meat and cancer, cardiovascular disease and deaths from any cause. This is likely down to the pro-inflammatory and cancer-causing chemicals we produce when we cook meat at high temperatures (frying, grilling, roasting, etc) more than the meat itself.
My take is that there’s far greater bang for the buck in cutting back on red meat consumption altogether rather than switching from grain to grass fed.
As for glyphosate, there are contradictory opinions. Regulators are generally not concerned at the levels seen in food, but plenty of activists are very worried. Academic journal articles show mixed opinions with a slim majority expressing concern. It’s not something I’ve researched extensively, so I don’t feel I can give an opinion either way. However, it’s something I’ve been asked about a number of times, so I plan to look into it for a future article.
It sounds as though you’ve already taken plenty of steps to eat well. Until we get to around 65, there’s strong evidence that getting more of our protein from plants is associated with better health outcomes. After 65, it seems to matter less.
I seem to recall that grass fed dairy cows, such as is mandated in parts of Europe produce A2 variety of protein in their milk, and that grain-fed US cows produce A1 protein that may cause inflammation when consumed. I’m curious if that logic is valid and if that also carries over to meat?
But as you point out, and following what you’ve stated above, it would make sense to assume the cooking method over shadows protein type by a wide margin for the meat. So that logic would only apply to dairy products.
We’re talking about A1 and A2 variants of the milk protein beta casein. The only difference is a single amino acid, but it’s at a point where it affects how our enzymes split the beta casein protein.
There are suggestions that the A1 version is associated with increased inflammation and an increased potential for some neurological conditions such as autism spectrum disorder. Links with type 1 diabetes, allergies, asthma and cardiovascular disease have also been mooted. There’s no clear evidence for any of this in humans, however. A2 milk has not been linked to these conditions and may be easier to digest.
Importantly, variations in A1 and A2 beta-casein in milk are linked to genetic polymorphisms in cows, specifically a mutation in the beta-casein gene (CSN2), rather than the cows' diet. If there’s a difference between American and European dairy milk, it will be due to genetic differences in the cows rather than what they eat.
I use turmeric for color and everything but the bagel seasoning. I add mushrooms, avocado or spinach, and crumbled goat cheese or plant-based cheddar. Sometimes I’ll add a little hot sauce on top. Very tasty.
There’s been remarkably little study of egg whites rather than whole eggs, but what there is is encouraging. In what’s probably the most comprehensive study (https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003508), while each daily whole egg was associated with a 7% increase in deaths from any cause, those eating egg whites actually saw a lower risk of dying prematurely.
The authors suggest the harm from eggs comes primarily from their cholesterol, and that’s in the yolk rather than the white.
From the information I’ve seen, I don’t see a reason to worry about eating egg whites.
I’m curious, though. How do you make them tasty? Egg whites on their own are pretty bland.
There is one type of diet that consistently receives high marks from researchers, and that is the Mediterranean diet and its spin-offs; the "Green Mediterranean Diet," the MIND Diet, and the DASH diet.
I agree 100%, Mick. No diet has more compelling evidence from study after study than the Mediterranean diet. It’s benefits are almost miraculous.
Given our love of quick fixes, if you could pack the benefits into a pill, the manufacturers would be billionaires as we’d all want them! We can’t do that. Instead, we have to eat delicious meals every day, just like they do in Greece, Italy and Spain! Bummer ;-)
I have eaten an egg every morning for about 15 years. I thought eggs were good for you? Can you explain why they're not great? I thought the B-12, lutein, and protein made them the optimal choice, in spite of the cholesterol.
I get your frustration, MB. Eggs are like a yo-yo. One year they're a superfood, the next they're a health hazard, and then it switches around again. It's hard to keep track.
If you look at individual studies, they can have contradictory effects, that's why I like to look at very large, well-conducted studies and especially at meta-analyses where researchers combine many studies.
One recent meta-analysis { https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxac105} that looked at studies which together included almost 12 million participants may explain the contradictory results. They found that the link between egg consumption and a risk of premature death didn't apply to everyone, only to certain subgroups.
It found that overall, each daily egg was associated with a 6% increase in the risk of death from any cause. Because they had data on so many people, they were able to look at various subgroups. They found that when comparing those eating the most eggs with those eating the least, the increased risk was only seen in:
- Women
- Americans (12% increased risk)
- Those aged over 60 (10% higher risk)
- Studies where participants were followed for at least 15 years (7% increased risk)
- After taking into account abnormal cholesterol levels (the effect of eggs was more pronounced in people with high cholesterol, even though they tended to eat less of them)
In these studies, those eating the most eggs ate, on average 1.2 eggs/day.
As Mick pointed out, those eating the most eggs had a 10% lower stroke risk, but it didn't reach statistical significance (meaning the researchers couldn't rule out that the finding was simply due to chance. I suspect it's real however as it's been seen in other studies).
Why would Americans be more likely to experience harm associated with egg consumption?
The researchers suggest that:
- Americans tend to get more cholesterol from other sources so that from eggs might be more likely to tip the balance
- Americans tend to eat eggs with meat and refined grains whereas in other countries studied eggs are more likely to be eaten with vegetables.
- Americans tend to cook eggs at higher heat and for longer, for example, frying rather than poaching. This may destroy some of the nutrients and also add toxic products such as lipid oxidation products from the frying oil.
The authors concluded that it would be wise to eat eggs moderately, particularly for women, those over 60, Americans, and those with high cholesterol. They didn't explain what constituted moderate consumption, but the high consumption group in their analysis was eating a little more than one egg per day.
Interestingly, that link disappeared when the researchers corrected for blood cholesterol levels, suggesting that cholesterol is likely to be the key factor driving the higher risk. This is also supported by the fact that those eating only egg whites had a 7% lower risk of dying prematurely - the cholesterol is in the yolk.
As we saw in the newsletter, the highest benefit in swapping from animal to plant protein came when swapping from eggs. I think the evidence is pretty compelling, even though there are individual studies that don't show a link.
My take on all this is that it's wise to eat eggs sparingly. However, you can't look at a single item in the diet in isolation. A fried egg and bacon every breakfast is likely to be more harmful than a poached egg in a vegetable ramen bowl. It will also depend on your age and other health conditions and risk factors. For what it's worth, I probably average two eggs a week.
The latest "research" on eggs suggests that they are okay. Eggs produced by free-range hens given high-quality supplemental feed are supposed to be the healthiest.
Hi Mick. Did you look at the funding on that paper? - "An unrestricted grant from the American Egg Board’s Egg Nutrition Center (award #20194881) funded this research."
Lots of great research is funded by industry, but I'm skeptical when a small industry funded paper is an outlier compared to huge publicly funded studies and meta-analyses.
I have read on Substack and elsewhere that it is not the cholesterol in your diet but rather inflammation and as we get older we has to consume protein to avoid muscle atrophy. Hard boiled eggs, Greek yogurt, cottage cheese, steel cut oats is my go to.Doc says any red meat has to be cooked well done, I say why bother. Salmon n sliced turkey samiches. No alcohol but trying to get him onboard with 0% beers, life is a chore sometimes.
I’m not surprised you’re confused about cholesterol, Jeffrey. It’s one of those yo-yo food constituents that’s bad for you one day and no problem the next.
Although it’s possible to find studies showing that cholesterol is not associated with harm, the vast majority of studies show an increase in deaths from cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality (death from any cause) in those who consume the most dietary cholesterol.
Eggs are a major source of dietary cholesterol and they, too, are linked to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality - at least whole eggs are. Eating only egg whites is associated with a lower risk than eating no eggs.
Many experts recommend not exceeding two eggs a week. That seems like good advice. In studies showing that those consuming the most eggs have a higher risk of all-cause mortality, those top consumers were averaging a little over one egg a day.
While inflammation is essential for fighting infection and healing from injury, our diets and lifestyle mean many of us have chronic inflammation, and this is indeed harmful. Eating a diet rich in fruit and vegetables, such as the Mediterranean diet is one of the best ways to reduce inflammation.
A major driver of inflammation in the Western diet is red and processed meat. It’s likely that this may be largely down to the pro-inflammatory chemicals we produce when we cook meat at high temperatures (frying, grilling, roasting, etc.). While I understand your doctor wanting you to avoid risks from underdone meat, there’s very clear evidence that regularly consuming well-done meat is associated with more heart disease, cancer and deaths from any cause. Rather than cooking it until it’s well done you might be better off checking with a food thermometer that it’s reached a safe temperature so you can avoid eating it well done.
One of the recent One Health Tweak a Week newsletters was about foods that can increase and decrease inflammation, so have a look at that for more information.
We start losing muscle mass and strength from our fifties and you’re right that it’s important to get enough protein, though there’s no need to go overboard, indeed that may be harmful. Past 60, aim for 1.1 to 1.2 grams per kg body weight of protein (that’s pure protein rather than, say, chicken breast or steak, so you need to check the nutritional info panel). That said, exercise is the most effective way to maintain muscle mass and strength as we get older, particularly resistance exercise - things like push-ups and squats.
It sounds as though your diet is already pretty good, so keep doing what you’re doing!
The only dessert I eat now is 3 squares of 90% dark chocolate. Usually every other night or a few times a week. My big goal was to lay off sugar as much as possible. So you consider frozen vegetables to be as healthy as fresh? I go back and forth those choices. I do lots and lots of chopping now!!
You make me feel guilty, Danell. Sugar is my last dirty secret! I don’t eat heaps, but I can’t resist picking up a packet of biscuits/cookies at the store. I can’t enjoy tea without one!
Dark chocolate is a great choice. Lots of polyphenols.
As I understand it, frozen veg are typically more nutritious than fresh as they are frozen very quickly after harvesting, sometimes even in the field. That means there’s less of a chance for nutrients to break down vs ‘fresh’ vegetables that have been transported to a warehouse, then to a distributor, then to a supermarket, and maybe sat on a shelf there for a day or two.
Growing your own might be ideal. I tried that last year. A cold wet spring meant slugs ate all my seedlings. Then hares, pigeons and deer ate everything that survived! A few broccoli survived the winter and were just producing heads. This lunchtime I disturbed a baby hare finishing them off!
This afternoon I was searching Amazon for electric fencing!
Ben, your excellent point about funding sources raising red flags is well taken. One should note that there were other, less suspect sources as well. Also, the principal investigators claimed no conflicts of interest. However, as a general rule, observational nutritional studies in particular need to be viewed with a large measure of professional skepticism.
Although there are studies supporting both sides of the argument, I believe that the preponderance of evidence suggests that eating up to one egg per day can be part of a healthy diet for most people. Of course, an individual’s health conditions, dietary patterns, and overall lifestyle must also be taken into account. I’m willing to give up my twice-weekly egg and cheese on whole-grain toast and hummus if there is credible evidence for doing so.
But then, along comes this 2025 study showing a reduction in CVD mortality among older “free-range” adults, a group to which I proudly belong:
I love the idea of ‘free-range’ adults! I’ll embrace that 100%.
The paper you cite showing that in adults over 65, up to six eggs a week was associated with a lower mortality is fascinating as it gels with other research I’ve been digging into lately.
In contradiction to the current high-protein craze, high protein consumption (especially from animal sources) is associated with a higher all-cause mortality, and most people are eating more protein than is likely beneficial for them.
However, and this is where it gets really interesting, there’s a switch at around 65-70. From that point, consuming more protein is associated with a lower all-cause mortality (except in those with diabetes), and the links between animal protein and higher all-cause mortality vanish. It seems getting enough protein becomes the key factor, no matter it’s source.
In contrast to younger adults who are getting ‘too much’ protein, the over 65s typically don’t get enough. As always, we’ve got it all backwards!
Eggs + cheese + hummus? All mixed together? I wouldn’t have thought of that combination!
What about dairy foods? Does the animal it comes from matter? Does the egg quality matter? Like free range eggs with high Omega 3s. So many questions.
Great questions, Deborah. I wish I had equally great answers! The challenge is that to answer these questions with any degree of conviction we need studies involving large numbers of people, ideally from a range of ethnic and geographical backgrounds, followed for many years. For example, a hypothetical study suggesting that goat milk was more beneficial in a Japanese study of 150 people would be interesting, but we'd have no idea if it applied to a wider Japanese population, let alone the average American.
Although there are some nutritional differences in milk from different animals, there aren't long-term studies. Goat and sheep milk tends to be higher in saturated fat. The best evidence for long-term health benefits comes from lower fat cow's milk, unsweetened fermented dairy (think yogurt and kefir), and maybe hard cheeses (though they can come with a lot of saturated fat and salt, so are best eaten in moderation).
Free range eggs and 'omega-3' eggs, do come with higher levels of omega-3, and most people don't get enough omega-3 - perhaps more importantly, most people on a Western diet have an omega-6 to omega-3 ratio of ~18 to 1, when 2 or 3 to 1 is what the body is 'designed' for. However, the amount of omega-3 in these eggs is pretty small. You'd be better off focusing on oily fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines, sea bass, etc.) as the source of omega-3, and maybe adding a tablespoon of ground flaxseeds to your breakfast.
Eggs are contentious. My reading of the scientific literature has made me fairly conservative. I rarely eat more than two eggs a week. How you cook them and what you eat them with is likely far more important than the 'type' of egg. In the West, we all too often fry them and eat them with processed meats. In this context, eggs are quite strongly associated with harmful health effects in most studies. In contrast, in Asian countries, eggs are usually poached in broth and eaten with vegetables. Here, studies usually show not adverse health effects. As always, context matters.
In terms of protecting long term health, you'll get the biggest results from the big levers - eat lots of fruit, vegetables and whole grains, also nuts daily and oily fish a couple of times a week, while cutting back on red and processed meats, foods cooked at high temperature (think fried, roasted, grilled, etc.), ultra-processed food and sugary drinks and desserts. Add to that getting 6.5-7.5 hours of actual sleep, 6000+ steps a day and resistance exercise a couple of times a week. With all of those are running smoothly, you'll have locked in at least 80% of the health benefits without getting into the minutiae of egg choices or cows vs goats milk.
Where does one find dairy products that are not ultra processed ?
In the fridge sections, most likely.
Although milk is pasteurised, that's a good thing and it's not the same as ultra-processed. In the same way, cheese is processed through fermentation, again a good thing.
The sour cream on your sour cream and chives flavoured snack - that's a whole different, ultra-processed ball game!
Curious where you got the data that eggs and red meat are a net negative? I'd suggest checking these two articles out for an unbiased glance at the possible health benefits of them both. Especially egg yolk.
https://chriskresser.com/three-eggs-a-day-keep-the-doctor-away/
https://chriskresser.com/red-meat-it-does-a-body-good/
Hi Ronald.
The paper I referred to in the article was:
Lukas Schwingshackl, Carolina Schwedhelm, Georg Hoffmann, Anna-Maria Lampousi, Sven Knüppel, Khalid Iqbal, Angela Bechthold, Sabrina Schlesinger, Heiner Boeing,
Food groups and risk of all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies1,2,
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Volume 105, Issue 6, 2017, Pages 1462-1473,
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.117.153148.
However, there are many other meta-analyses and systematic reviews that come to the same conclusions. For example:
, W., Zhang, Y., Pan, L., Wang, S., Xie, K., Deng, S., Wang, R., Guo, C., Qin, P., Wu, X., Wu, Y., Zhao, Y., Feng, Y., & Hu, F. (2022). Association of Egg Consumption with Risk of All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.. The Journal of nutrition, 152 10, 2227-2237 . https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxac105.
CONCLUSIONS: Egg consumption was linearly associated with a modestly increased risk of all-cause mortality and, in older participants, Americans, and studies with longer follow-up or adjustments for hyperlipidemia, CVD mortality. These findings suggest that it may be prudent to avoid high egg consumption.
and
Wang, X., Lin, X., Ying, O., Liu, J., Zhao, G., Pan, A., & Hu, F. (2015). Red and processed meat consumption and mortality: dose–response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Public Health Nutrition, 19, 893 - 905. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015002062.
CONCLUSIONS: The present meta-analysis indicates that higher consumption of total red meat and processed meat is associated with an increased risk of total, cardiovascular and cancer mortality.
I’m not familiar with Chris Kresser, but when it comes to ‘unbiased opinions,’ you need to be cautious when your source is promoting supplements. I prefer to take my lead from extensive reading of academic journals.
Here are direct links to the key studies and reviews showing little to no correlation between dietary cholesterol and blood cholesterol levels:
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2015) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26109578
American Heart Association (AHA) Advisory (2019) https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2019/12/30/15/23/Dietary-Cholesterol-and-Cardiovascular-Risk
Review of Epidemiological Data and Clinical Interventions (2022) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9143438
DIETFITS Trial Secondary Analysis (2021) https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/6/1935
Global Study on Egg Consumption (2022) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9143438
Harvard Medical Student Egg Experiment (2024) https://nypost.com/2024/09/25/lifestyle/harvard-medical-student-nick-norwitz-ate-720-eggs-in-a-month-and-cholesterol-levels-dropped
I eat egg whites in the morning scrambled with veggies. Isnt this healthy?
If anything, you should avoid egg whites rather than egg yolk. https://chriskresser.com/three-eggs-a-day-keep-the-doctor-away/
That’s not supported by the science, Ronald.
Have a look at Egg and cholesterol consumption and mortality from cardiovascular and different causes in the United States: A population-based cohort study https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003508
This 2021 study of more than half a million Americans found that those eating the most eggs (5 eggs/week on average) had a 17% higher rate of death from any cause than those eating the least.
Interestingly, that link disappeared when the researchers corrected for blood cholesterol levels, suggesting that cholesterol is likely to be the key factor driving the higher risk. This is also supported by the fact that those eating only egg whites had a 7% lower risk of dying prematurely - the cholesterol is in the yolk.
If you want to eat half an egg, the evidence suggests you should eat the white and leave the yolk.
I noticed you are selectively choosing studies that fit your ideology. A simple internet search shows many studies saying the exact opposite.
Here are direct links to the key studies and reviews showing little to no correlation between dietary cholesterol and blood cholesterol levels:
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2015) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26109578
American Heart Association (AHA) Advisory (2019) https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2019/12/30/15/23/Dietary-Cholesterol-and-Cardiovascular-Risk
Review of Epidemiological Data and Clinical Interventions (2022) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9143438
DIETFITS Trial Secondary Analysis (2021) https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/6/1935
Global Study on Egg Consumption (2022) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9143438
Harvard Medical Student Egg Experiment (2024) https://nypost.com/2024/09/25/lifestyle/harvard-medical-student-nick-norwitz-ate-720-eggs-in-a-month-and-cholesterol-levels-dropped
Would you like a summary PDF of these studies?
Ronald,
No, I’m not “choosing studies to fit my ideology.” I’m selecting high-quality, long-term studies that directly answer the question: Do people who consume more dietary cholesterol - mainly from eggs - have higher rates of heart disease and earlier death?
And for the record, I like eggs. If I could make the evidence support eating them freely, I’d happily do so. But when you take an honest look at the research, that’s not what it shows.
Let’s examine what you posted:
The studies you cited
1. Berger et al., 2015
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26109578/
This systematic review looked at dietary cholesterol and cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the authors concluded: “Reviewed studies were heterogeneous and lacked the methodological rigor to draw any conclusions regarding the effects of dietary cholesterol on CVD risk... the effect... remains unclear.”
In other words: inconclusive.
2. AHA Advisory (2019)
https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2019/12/30/15/23/Dietary-Cholesterol-and-Cardiovascular-Risk
This is a short commentary on older studies. While it notes inconsistency in observational data, it doesn’t overturn existing recommendations.
More importantly, the AHA’s formal 2021 dietary statement - based on a comprehensive evidence review - continues to advise low cholesterol intake:
Lichtenstein et al., 2021 (Circulation)
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001031
“A positive relation between dietary cholesterol and LDL cholesterol concentrations has been documented... Consistent with these findings, the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee report noted that current intakes should not be increased... Adhering to a dietary pattern consistent with the guidance in this document will result in relatively low dietary cholesterol intakes.”
3. Fernandez & Murillo, 2022
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9143438/
This reviews mostly short-term feeding trials (weeks to months in length) looking at blood lipid changes, not disease or mortality. Useful for understanding mechanisms, but not relevant to long-term health outcomes, which is what this discussion is about.
4. DIETFITS Trial Secondary Analysis, 2021
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/6/1935
This sub-analysis involved 609 people on low-carb, calorie-restricted diets. They were losing weight, which in itself improves lipid profiles. Even the authors caution against generalising these results.
5. “Harvard student eats 720 eggs” (NY Post)
https://nypost.com/2024/09/25/lifestyle/harvard-medical-student-nick-norwitz-ate-720-eggs-in-a-month-and-cholesterol-levels-dropped/
This wasn’t a study. It was an anecdote. One person, no control group, no peer review, and only short-term markers - not long-term health risks.
Here’s what serious, long-term cohort studies show:
These studies tracked thousands of people for decades, adjusting for lifestyle and health variables, and looked at actual clinical outcomes - heart attacks, strokes, and deaths.
1. Zhuang et al., 2021 (PLOS Medicine)
https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003508
521,120 participants, 16 years of follow-up
Each additional 300mg of dietary cholesterol (≈1.5 eggs) per day was associated with:
+19% all-cause mortality
+16% cardiovascular mortality
+24% cancer mortality
Interestingly, the risk disappeared when adjusting for serum cholesterol—implying blood cholesterol is the key driver.
Participants who ate only egg whites had a 7% lower mortality risk.
2. Zhong et al., 2019 (JAMA)
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2728487
29,615 adults, 17 years of follow-up
Each +300mg of dietary cholesterol/day:
+17% increased risk of cardiovascular disease
+18% increased risk of all-cause mortality
Dose-response relationship observed. This is one of the most widely cited modern studies on this question.
3. Zhao et al., 2022 (Circulation)
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.057642
27,078 men, 31 years of follow-up
Each +300mg of cholesterol/day:
+13% higher cardiovascular mortality
+10% higher all-cause mortality
The study also included a meta-analysis that confirmed these risks in broader populations.
4. Chen et al., 2021 (American Journal of Clinical Nutrition)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916522006621
96,831 postmenopausal women, 18 years of follow-up
Those consuming the most cholesterol had a 12% higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease.
5. Hou et al., 2021 (European Journal of Clinical Nutrition)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41430-020-00825-x
8,952 adults, 14 years of follow-up
Gradually increasing or persistently high cholesterol intake linked to:
+14% risk of hypertension
+219% increase in all-cause mortality (gradual increase group)
+226% increase in those with persistently high intake
Bottom line: Your evidence is short-term, often based on blood markers rather than outcomes, and doesn’t prove what you claim.
The best available science - large, long-running cohort studies, published in leading journals - shows that high dietary cholesterol is associated with earlier death and more cardiovascular disease.
This isn’t a fringe view. It’s supported by the AHA, WHO, and the most respected epidemiologists in the field.
So while a few eggs a week may be fine as part of an otherwise healthy diet, pretending they’re harmless in unlimited amounts - especially in people with diabetes or high LDL - is misleading and potentially dangerous.
The yolk is absolutely loaded with beneficial nutrients. It’d be careless to your health to only eat the whites.
I can't help but think that egg white alone would taste pretty underwhelming, too!
Nutrition is endlessly complex and frustrating, isn't it? The thing is, we don't need to be perfect. It's important to understand what the science tells us, but then we have to cobble together a diet that's healthy, but that also fits with our tastes and lifestyle.
I know I should cut back on sugar, maybe I should try fasting, too, but you know what.. I don't want to!
You can eat your egg whites without a worry, Theresa!
Most studies looking at the health effects of eggs just look at whole eggs. However, when just egg whites are considered, there’s actually a modest fall in the risk of premature death for those who eat the most egg whites.
So, it looks like the risk comes only from the yolks, presumably mostly down to the cholesterol.
Keep enjoying those egg whites! (The veggies make them even healthier).
With regard to red meat and eggs, I’m seeing more information about how animal diet affects the end product. Is grass fed beef healthier to eat? Same for free range chickens?
Also, many grain crops in the US may be sprayed with glyphosate (Round Up) to speed desiccation of plants prior to harvest. That raises health concerns.
We raise our chickens for eggs, hydroponically grow most of our vegetables indoors, consume mostly grass fed beef without grain finishing, without added hormones and without antibiotics. Any vegetables from stores are organic.
How can we improve? I’m leery about studies that don’t address the above modifiers and would certainly be interested in learning more.
Mick and Ben, I appreciate your above discussion, but where can additional research be found, if it exists?
Great information, and once again, thank you for the response. My beef reactions were likely a result of Alpha-Gal syndrome (AGS). I seem to be over coming that, but still very cautious about grain fed vs grass fed beef as I only tolerate the latter.
Hi Mike. Lots of valid concerns there.
Given that one of the few things every single one of us does every day is to eat and drink, it’s frustrating how much we still don’t fully understand about nutrition.
The concern about grain vs grass fed beef is largely down to the omega-6 vs omega-3 balance. Grain fed animals have more omega-6. We evolved eating a diet balanced with omega-6 and omega-3. These days, the ‘average’ American gets 18 times more omega-6 than omega-3, and there are strong links between that and higher levels of many diseases as well as deaths from any cause.
On the surface, eating grass fed beef is better because we’d get less omega-6 from this beef than from grain-fed cattle. However, little of our omega-6 comes from meat. It comes from ultra-processed foods, savoury snacks, mayonnaise, creamy store-bought sources, retail cakes and cookies, etc. So I’m not sure how much real world difference it would make. That said, I’m not disputing that grass fed beef is better - it tastes better and it means a better life for the cows.
I think a bigger concern is the association between red and processed meat and cancer, cardiovascular disease and deaths from any cause. This is likely down to the pro-inflammatory and cancer-causing chemicals we produce when we cook meat at high temperatures (frying, grilling, roasting, etc) more than the meat itself.
My take is that there’s far greater bang for the buck in cutting back on red meat consumption altogether rather than switching from grain to grass fed.
As for glyphosate, there are contradictory opinions. Regulators are generally not concerned at the levels seen in food, but plenty of activists are very worried. Academic journal articles show mixed opinions with a slim majority expressing concern. It’s not something I’ve researched extensively, so I don’t feel I can give an opinion either way. However, it’s something I’ve been asked about a number of times, so I plan to look into it for a future article.
It sounds as though you’ve already taken plenty of steps to eat well. Until we get to around 65, there’s strong evidence that getting more of our protein from plants is associated with better health outcomes. After 65, it seems to matter less.
Great information Dr., thank you for responding.
I seem to recall that grass fed dairy cows, such as is mandated in parts of Europe produce A2 variety of protein in their milk, and that grain-fed US cows produce A1 protein that may cause inflammation when consumed. I’m curious if that logic is valid and if that also carries over to meat?
But as you point out, and following what you’ve stated above, it would make sense to assume the cooking method over shadows protein type by a wide margin for the meat. So that logic would only apply to dairy products.
Now there’s a contentious topic!
We’re talking about A1 and A2 variants of the milk protein beta casein. The only difference is a single amino acid, but it’s at a point where it affects how our enzymes split the beta casein protein.
There are suggestions that the A1 version is associated with increased inflammation and an increased potential for some neurological conditions such as autism spectrum disorder. Links with type 1 diabetes, allergies, asthma and cardiovascular disease have also been mooted. There’s no clear evidence for any of this in humans, however. A2 milk has not been linked to these conditions and may be easier to digest.
Importantly, variations in A1 and A2 beta-casein in milk are linked to genetic polymorphisms in cows, specifically a mutation in the beta-casein gene (CSN2), rather than the cows' diet. If there’s a difference between American and European dairy milk, it will be due to genetic differences in the cows rather than what they eat.
You ‘re right it’s rather easy
À 7.4 PH urine daily constitutes a healthy ground for self régénération to.
Vit C&D, magnesium … simple & easy
What is your take on eating egg whites? I have scrambled egg whites several days a week and whole grain hot cereal with fruit and nuts the other days.
I use turmeric for color and everything but the bagel seasoning. I add mushrooms, avocado or spinach, and crumbled goat cheese or plant-based cheddar. Sometimes I’ll add a little hot sauce on top. Very tasty.
Barbara, you've opened my eyes to a whole new world and got my mouth watering!
Enjoy!
Hi Barbara
There’s been remarkably little study of egg whites rather than whole eggs, but what there is is encouraging. In what’s probably the most comprehensive study (https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003508), while each daily whole egg was associated with a 7% increase in deaths from any cause, those eating egg whites actually saw a lower risk of dying prematurely.
The authors suggest the harm from eggs comes primarily from their cholesterol, and that’s in the yolk rather than the white.
From the information I’ve seen, I don’t see a reason to worry about eating egg whites.
I’m curious, though. How do you make them tasty? Egg whites on their own are pretty bland.
There is one type of diet that consistently receives high marks from researchers, and that is the Mediterranean diet and its spin-offs; the "Green Mediterranean Diet," the MIND Diet, and the DASH diet.
I agree 100%, Mick. No diet has more compelling evidence from study after study than the Mediterranean diet. It’s benefits are almost miraculous.
Given our love of quick fixes, if you could pack the benefits into a pill, the manufacturers would be billionaires as we’d all want them! We can’t do that. Instead, we have to eat delicious meals every day, just like they do in Greece, Italy and Spain! Bummer ;-)
I have eaten an egg every morning for about 15 years. I thought eggs were good for you? Can you explain why they're not great? I thought the B-12, lutein, and protein made them the optimal choice, in spite of the cholesterol.
Thank you Sir, for your time and information.
Hi MB and Mick
I get your frustration, MB. Eggs are like a yo-yo. One year they're a superfood, the next they're a health hazard, and then it switches around again. It's hard to keep track.
If you look at individual studies, they can have contradictory effects, that's why I like to look at very large, well-conducted studies and especially at meta-analyses where researchers combine many studies.
One recent meta-analysis { https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxac105} that looked at studies which together included almost 12 million participants may explain the contradictory results. They found that the link between egg consumption and a risk of premature death didn't apply to everyone, only to certain subgroups.
It found that overall, each daily egg was associated with a 6% increase in the risk of death from any cause. Because they had data on so many people, they were able to look at various subgroups. They found that when comparing those eating the most eggs with those eating the least, the increased risk was only seen in:
- Women
- Americans (12% increased risk)
- Those aged over 60 (10% higher risk)
- Studies where participants were followed for at least 15 years (7% increased risk)
- After taking into account abnormal cholesterol levels (the effect of eggs was more pronounced in people with high cholesterol, even though they tended to eat less of them)
In these studies, those eating the most eggs ate, on average 1.2 eggs/day.
As Mick pointed out, those eating the most eggs had a 10% lower stroke risk, but it didn't reach statistical significance (meaning the researchers couldn't rule out that the finding was simply due to chance. I suspect it's real however as it's been seen in other studies).
Why would Americans be more likely to experience harm associated with egg consumption?
The researchers suggest that:
- Americans tend to get more cholesterol from other sources so that from eggs might be more likely to tip the balance
- Americans tend to eat eggs with meat and refined grains whereas in other countries studied eggs are more likely to be eaten with vegetables.
- Americans tend to cook eggs at higher heat and for longer, for example, frying rather than poaching. This may destroy some of the nutrients and also add toxic products such as lipid oxidation products from the frying oil.
The authors concluded that it would be wise to eat eggs moderately, particularly for women, those over 60, Americans, and those with high cholesterol. They didn't explain what constituted moderate consumption, but the high consumption group in their analysis was eating a little more than one egg per day.
A 2021 study of more than half a million Americans {https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003508} found that those eating the most eggs (5 eggs/week on average) had a 17% higher rate of death from any cause than those eating the least.
Interestingly, that link disappeared when the researchers corrected for blood cholesterol levels, suggesting that cholesterol is likely to be the key factor driving the higher risk. This is also supported by the fact that those eating only egg whites had a 7% lower risk of dying prematurely - the cholesterol is in the yolk.
As we saw in the newsletter, the highest benefit in swapping from animal to plant protein came when swapping from eggs. I think the evidence is pretty compelling, even though there are individual studies that don't show a link.
My take on all this is that it's wise to eat eggs sparingly. However, you can't look at a single item in the diet in isolation. A fried egg and bacon every breakfast is likely to be more harmful than a poached egg in a vegetable ramen bowl. It will also depend on your age and other health conditions and risk factors. For what it's worth, I probably average two eggs a week.
For my cooking, it's 1-1.5 eggs per person, lightly pan-scrambled in EVOO, sometimes along with mushrooms, onions, and bell peppers.
Sounds yummy!
EVOO cancels out all badness!
RE: "EVOO cancels out all badness!"
I would certainly like to think so. Any persuasive evidence?
I’m very convinced by the benefits of EVOO, Mick, quite apart from the benefits of the Mediterranean diet. Things like:
Reducing the risk of death from any cause by 11% to 26%
Reducing the risk of dying from cardiovascular disease by 16% to 44%
Replacing just 10g a day of butter or margarine with olive oil reduces the risk of death from any cause by 13%.
In those who’ve already had a heart attack, regular olive oil consumption reduces rates of death from cardiovascular disease by 24%
Reducing pre-existing atherosclerosis.
Reducing the risk of dying from cancer by 17% and of breast cancer by a whopping 68%
Reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes by 22% to 40%
Reducing the risk of death from neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s by 29% and slowing cognitive decline.
Promoting a healthy microbiome.
Lowering after-meal blood glucose and raising GLP-1 (the target of Wegovy/Ozempic), which curbs hunger.
Bringing better weight control and a lower waist circumference.
There’s a good review at: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/24/16002
The citations for my bullet point list are in an article I wrote on monounsaturates: https://medium.com/in-fitness-and-in-health/the-critical-role-of-monounsaturated-fats-for-longevity-and-disease-prevention-58b44392a3ce?sk=a2f561a0cbdc0d19adc98f0ff3dfe87b
Thank you, Ben. I loved your Medium article and linked to it with:
"For an outstanding deep dive into this subject, see this article by Dr. Ben Jones." That's in today's update of this post:
https://drmick.substack.com/p/healthy-aging-and-longevity-621
The latest "research" on eggs suggests that they are okay. Eggs produced by free-range hens given high-quality supplemental feed are supposed to be the healthiest.
https://www.sciencealert.com/study-finds-eggs-might-protect-brain-health-and-lower-cholesterol
Hi Mick. Did you look at the funding on that paper? - "An unrestricted grant from the American Egg Board’s Egg Nutrition Center (award #20194881) funded this research."
Lots of great research is funded by industry, but I'm skeptical when a small industry funded paper is an outlier compared to huge publicly funded studies and meta-analyses.
I have read on Substack and elsewhere that it is not the cholesterol in your diet but rather inflammation and as we get older we has to consume protein to avoid muscle atrophy. Hard boiled eggs, Greek yogurt, cottage cheese, steel cut oats is my go to.Doc says any red meat has to be cooked well done, I say why bother. Salmon n sliced turkey samiches. No alcohol but trying to get him onboard with 0% beers, life is a chore sometimes.
I’m not surprised you’re confused about cholesterol, Jeffrey. It’s one of those yo-yo food constituents that’s bad for you one day and no problem the next.
Although it’s possible to find studies showing that cholesterol is not associated with harm, the vast majority of studies show an increase in deaths from cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality (death from any cause) in those who consume the most dietary cholesterol.
Eggs are a major source of dietary cholesterol and they, too, are linked to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality - at least whole eggs are. Eating only egg whites is associated with a lower risk than eating no eggs.
Many experts recommend not exceeding two eggs a week. That seems like good advice. In studies showing that those consuming the most eggs have a higher risk of all-cause mortality, those top consumers were averaging a little over one egg a day.
While inflammation is essential for fighting infection and healing from injury, our diets and lifestyle mean many of us have chronic inflammation, and this is indeed harmful. Eating a diet rich in fruit and vegetables, such as the Mediterranean diet is one of the best ways to reduce inflammation.
A major driver of inflammation in the Western diet is red and processed meat. It’s likely that this may be largely down to the pro-inflammatory chemicals we produce when we cook meat at high temperatures (frying, grilling, roasting, etc.). While I understand your doctor wanting you to avoid risks from underdone meat, there’s very clear evidence that regularly consuming well-done meat is associated with more heart disease, cancer and deaths from any cause. Rather than cooking it until it’s well done you might be better off checking with a food thermometer that it’s reached a safe temperature so you can avoid eating it well done.
One of the recent One Health Tweak a Week newsletters was about foods that can increase and decrease inflammation, so have a look at that for more information.
We start losing muscle mass and strength from our fifties and you’re right that it’s important to get enough protein, though there’s no need to go overboard, indeed that may be harmful. Past 60, aim for 1.1 to 1.2 grams per kg body weight of protein (that’s pure protein rather than, say, chicken breast or steak, so you need to check the nutritional info panel). That said, exercise is the most effective way to maintain muscle mass and strength as we get older, particularly resistance exercise - things like push-ups and squats.
It sounds as though your diet is already pretty good, so keep doing what you’re doing!
The only dessert I eat now is 3 squares of 90% dark chocolate. Usually every other night or a few times a week. My big goal was to lay off sugar as much as possible. So you consider frozen vegetables to be as healthy as fresh? I go back and forth those choices. I do lots and lots of chopping now!!
You make me feel guilty, Danell. Sugar is my last dirty secret! I don’t eat heaps, but I can’t resist picking up a packet of biscuits/cookies at the store. I can’t enjoy tea without one!
Dark chocolate is a great choice. Lots of polyphenols.
As I understand it, frozen veg are typically more nutritious than fresh as they are frozen very quickly after harvesting, sometimes even in the field. That means there’s less of a chance for nutrients to break down vs ‘fresh’ vegetables that have been transported to a warehouse, then to a distributor, then to a supermarket, and maybe sat on a shelf there for a day or two.
Growing your own might be ideal. I tried that last year. A cold wet spring meant slugs ate all my seedlings. Then hares, pigeons and deer ate everything that survived! A few broccoli survived the winter and were just producing heads. This lunchtime I disturbed a baby hare finishing them off!
This afternoon I was searching Amazon for electric fencing!
Ditto on the frozen fruits and veggies, if you're not growing your own. My second choice would be to buy fresh produce from the local farmers markets.
Good idea! Thank you for the response.
Ben, your excellent point about funding sources raising red flags is well taken. One should note that there were other, less suspect sources as well. Also, the principal investigators claimed no conflicts of interest. However, as a general rule, observational nutritional studies in particular need to be viewed with a large measure of professional skepticism.
Although there are studies supporting both sides of the argument, I believe that the preponderance of evidence suggests that eating up to one egg per day can be part of a healthy diet for most people. Of course, an individual’s health conditions, dietary patterns, and overall lifestyle must also be taken into account. I’m willing to give up my twice-weekly egg and cheese on whole-grain toast and hummus if there is credible evidence for doing so.
But then, along comes this 2025 study showing a reduction in CVD mortality among older “free-range” adults, a group to which I proudly belong:
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11767731/
I love the idea of ‘free-range’ adults! I’ll embrace that 100%.
The paper you cite showing that in adults over 65, up to six eggs a week was associated with a lower mortality is fascinating as it gels with other research I’ve been digging into lately.
In contradiction to the current high-protein craze, high protein consumption (especially from animal sources) is associated with a higher all-cause mortality, and most people are eating more protein than is likely beneficial for them.
However, and this is where it gets really interesting, there’s a switch at around 65-70. From that point, consuming more protein is associated with a lower all-cause mortality (except in those with diabetes), and the links between animal protein and higher all-cause mortality vanish. It seems getting enough protein becomes the key factor, no matter it’s source.
In contrast to younger adults who are getting ‘too much’ protein, the over 65s typically don’t get enough. As always, we’ve got it all backwards!
Eggs + cheese + hummus? All mixed together? I wouldn’t have thought of that combination!